The comparative form of adjective is a crucial aspect of English grammar, enabling us to compare two nouns and express differences in their qualities, and compare.edu.vn offers comprehensive comparisons of adjectives. This guide dives deep into comparative adjectives, exploring their formation, usage, and nuances, providing you with the knowledge to master this essential grammatical concept with comparison tools. Explore comparative examples and superlative adjectives for a better understanding of adjective comparison.
1. Understanding Comparative Adjectives
Comparative adjectives are used to highlight the differences between two nouns. They indicate which noun possesses a quality to a greater or lesser degree. The basic structure for using comparative adjectives is:
Noun (subject) + verb + comparative adjective + than + noun (object)
This structure clearly establishes a comparison between two entities, allowing you to express preferences, differences in size, speed, importance, and various other qualities.
1.1. Examples of Comparative Adjectives in Sentences
Let’s illustrate this with some examples:
- My car is faster than yours.
- This book is more interesting than the one I read last week.
- The weather today is colder than yesterday.
- She is taller than her brother.
- Learning English is easier than learning Chinese.
In each of these sentences, the comparative adjective (faster, more interesting, colder, taller, easier) directly compares the quality of the subject noun with that of the object noun. The word “than” is essential in these constructions as it explicitly links the two items being compared.
1.2. When to Omit the Second Item of Comparison
Sometimes, the second item of comparison can be omitted if the context makes it clear what is being compared against. For example:
- I like chocolate more. (than vanilla, which is understood)
- He is getting taller. (than he was before, which is understood)
- This phone is cheaper. (than the other one we were looking at, which is understood)
In these cases, the omission makes the sentences more concise without sacrificing clarity. The reader or listener can easily infer the missing element from the surrounding conversation or context.
2. Forming Regular Comparative Adjectives
The formation of comparative adjectives depends primarily on the number of syllables in the original adjective. Here’s a breakdown of how to form regular comparatives:
2.1. One-Syllable Adjectives
For most one-syllable adjectives, you simply add “-er” to the end to form the comparative. However, there are specific rules to follow depending on the adjective’s spelling:
-
General Rule: Add “-er”
- Example: tall → taller, short → shorter, fast → faster
-
Consonant + Single Vowel + Consonant: Double the final consonant and add “-er”
- Example: big → bigger, hot → hotter, fat → fatter
-
Adjectives Ending in “e”: Just add “-r”
- Example: nice → nicer, safe → safer, large → larger
Here’s a table summarizing these rules with examples:
| Adjective | Comparative | Rule Applied |
|---|---|---|
| Tall | Taller | Add “-er” |
| Short | Shorter | Add “-er” |
| Fast | Faster | Add “-er” |
| Big | Bigger | Consonant + Single Vowel + Consonant: Double ‘g’ |
| Hot | Hotter | Consonant + Single Vowel + Consonant: Double ‘t’ |
| Fat | Fatter | Consonant + Single Vowel + Consonant: Double ‘t’ |
| Nice | Nicer | Adjective Ending in “e”: Add “-r” |
| Safe | Safer | Adjective Ending in “e”: Add “-r” |
| Large | Larger | Adjective Ending in “e”: Add “-r” |
2.2. Two-Syllable Adjectives
For two-syllable adjectives, the rules are a bit more flexible. Some adjectives take “-er,” while others use “more” before the adjective. There isn’t always a hard and fast rule, but here are some guidelines:
-
Adjectives Ending in “-y”: Change the “y” to “i” and add “-er”
- Example: happy → happier, easy → easier, busy → busier
-
Some Adjectives Can Take Either “-er” or “more”:
- Example: simple → simpler or more simple, quiet → quieter or more quiet
-
Use “more” for Most Other Two-Syllable Adjectives:
- Example: modern → more modern, careful → more careful, useful → more useful
Here’s a table summarizing these guidelines:
| Adjective | Comparative | Rule Applied |
|---|---|---|
| Happy | Happier | Ending in “-y”: Change “y” to “i” and add “-er” |
| Easy | Easier | Ending in “-y”: Change “y” to “i” and add “-er” |
| Busy | Busier | Ending in “-y”: Change “y” to “i” and add “-er” |
| Simple | Simpler/More Simple | Can take either “-er” or “more” |
| Quiet | Quieter/More Quiet | Can take either “-er” or “more” |
| Modern | More Modern | Use “more” for most other two-syllable adjectives |
| Careful | More Careful | Use “more” for most other two-syllable adjectives |
| Useful | More Useful | Use “more” for most other two-syllable adjectives |
It’s worth noting that for some adjectives, both forms are correct, but one might sound more natural or be more commonly used. If you are unsure, using “more” is often a safe bet.
2.3. Three-Syllable Adjectives (and Longer)
For adjectives with three or more syllables, you almost always use “more” before the adjective to form the comparative.
- Example: important → more important, beautiful → more beautiful, expensive → more expensive
Here’s a table illustrating this rule:
| Adjective | Comparative | Rule Applied |
|---|---|---|
| Important | More Important | Use “more” for three or more syllables |
| Beautiful | More Beautiful | Use “more” for three or more syllables |
| Expensive | More Expensive | Use “more” for three or more syllables |
| Interesting | More Interesting | Use “more” for three or more syllables |
Using “more” with longer adjectives keeps the grammar simple and avoids awkward constructions.
3. Irregular Comparative Adjectives
Some adjectives have irregular comparative forms. These must be memorized, as they don’t follow the standard rules. Here are some of the most common irregular comparatives:
- good → better
- bad → worse
- far → farther/further
- little → less
- much/many → more
3.1. Examples of Irregular Comparatives in Sentences
Here are some sentences using these irregular comparative adjectives:
- My health is better than it was last year.
- The traffic today is worse than yesterday.
- I walked farther than I intended.
- I have less time to study this week.
- I need more information before I can make a decision.
3.2. Further vs. Farther: A Note on Usage
The words “farther” and “further” are both comparative forms of “far,” but they are used in slightly different contexts:
-
Farther: Generally used for physical distances.
- Example: I can throw the ball farther than you.
-
Further: Often used for metaphorical or non-physical distances, and can also mean “additional.”
- Example: I need to research this topic further. (meaning more research)
- Any further delays will cause problems. (meaning additional delays)
While the distinction is subtle, being aware of it can help you use these words more accurately.
| Adjective | Comparative |
|---|---|
| Good | Better |
| Bad | Worse |
| Far | Farther/Further |
| Little | Less |
| Much/Many | More |
4. Superlative Adjectives: Taking Comparison to the Extreme
While comparative adjectives compare two things, superlative adjectives compare one thing to a group of things, indicating that it has the highest or lowest degree of a particular quality.
The basic structure for using superlative adjectives is:
Noun (subject) + verb + the + superlative adjective + noun (object)
4.1. Examples of Superlative Adjectives in Sentences
- My house is the largest in the neighborhood.
- This is the smallest phone I’ve ever seen.
- He is the tallest student in the class.
- That was the most interesting movie I’ve watched this year.
- She is the happiest person I know.
In each of these sentences, the superlative adjective (largest, smallest, tallest, most interesting, happiest) describes the subject noun as having the highest degree of the specified quality within the group. The word “the” is crucial here, as it specifies that the noun is unique in its quality.
4.2. When to Omit the Group Being Compared With
Like comparative adjectives, the group being compared with can sometimes be omitted if it’s clear from the context.
- This is the best! (referring to a specific set of options, understood from context)
- She ran the fastest. (understood to be among all participants in a race)
- He is the smartest. (within a known group, like a class or team)
5. Forming Regular Superlative Adjectives
The formation of superlative adjectives is similar to that of comparatives, with a few key differences.
5.1. One-Syllable Adjectives
For most one-syllable adjectives, you add “-est” to the end to form the superlative. The same spelling rules apply as with comparatives:
-
General Rule: Add “-est”
- Example: tall → tallest, short → shortest, fast → fastest
-
Consonant + Single Vowel + Consonant: Double the final consonant and add “-est”
- Example: big → biggest, hot → hottest, fat → fattest
-
Adjectives Ending in “e”: Just add “-st”
- Example: nice → nicest, safe → safest, large → largest
Here’s a table summarizing these rules with examples:
| Adjective | Superlative | Rule Applied |
|---|---|---|
| Tall | Tallest | Add “-est” |
| Short | Shortest | Add “-est” |
| Fast | Fastest | Add “-est” |
| Big | Biggest | Consonant + Single Vowel + Consonant: Double ‘g’ |
| Hot | Hottest | Consonant + Single Vowel + Consonant: Double ‘t’ |
| Fat | Fattest | Consonant + Single Vowel + Consonant: Double ‘t’ |
| Nice | Nicest | Adjective Ending in “e”: Add “-st” |
| Safe | Safest | Adjective Ending in “e”: Add “-st” |
| Large | Largest | Adjective Ending in “e”: Add “-st” |
5.2. Two-Syllable Adjectives
For two-syllable adjectives, the rules are similar to comparatives. Some adjectives take “-est,” while others use “most” before the adjective.
-
Adjectives Ending in “-y”: Change the “y” to “i” and add “-est”
- Example: happy → happiest, easy → easiest, busy → busiest
-
Some Adjectives Can Take Either “-est” or “most”:
- Example: simple → simplest or most simple, quiet → quietest or most quiet
-
Use “most” for Most Other Two-Syllable Adjectives:
- Example: modern → most modern, careful → most careful, useful → most useful
Here’s a table summarizing these guidelines:
| Adjective | Superlative | Rule Applied |
|---|---|---|
| Happy | Happiest | Ending in “-y”: Change “y” to “i” and add “-est” |
| Easy | Easiest | Ending in “-y”: Change “y” to “i” and add “-est” |
| Busy | Busiest | Ending in “-y”: Change “y” to “i” and add “-est” |
| Simple | Simplest/Most Simple | Can take either “-est” or “most” |
| Quiet | Quietest/Most Quiet | Can take either “-est” or “most” |
| Modern | Most Modern | Use “most” for most other two-syllable adjectives |
| Careful | Most Careful | Use “most” for most other two-syllable adjectives |
| Useful | Most Useful | Use “most” for most other two-syllable adjectives |
5.3. Three-Syllable Adjectives (and Longer)
For adjectives with three or more syllables, you almost always use “most” before the adjective to form the superlative.
- Example: important → most important, beautiful → most beautiful, expensive → most expensive
Here’s a table illustrating this rule:
| Adjective | Superlative | Rule Applied |
|---|---|---|
| Important | Most Important | Use “most” for three or more syllables |
| Beautiful | Most Beautiful | Use “most” for three or more syllables |
| Expensive | Most Expensive | Use “most” for three or more syllables |
| Interesting | Most Interesting | Use “most” for three or more syllables |
6. Irregular Superlative Adjectives
Like comparative adjectives, some adjectives have irregular superlative forms that must be memorized. Here are the most common ones:
- good → best
- bad → worst
- far → farthest/furthest
- little → least
- much/many → most
6.1. Examples of Irregular Superlatives in Sentences
- This is the best cake I’ve ever tasted.
- That was the worst movie I’ve ever seen.
- The farthest star is incredibly distant.
- I have the least amount of money of anyone here.
- This store has the most variety of products.
6.2. Farthest vs. Furthest: A Note on Usage
Similar to “farther” and “further,” “farthest” and “furthest” have slightly different usages:
-
Farthest: Generally used for physical distances.
- Example: Which planet is the farthest from the sun?
-
Furthest: Often used for metaphorical or non-physical distances, and can also mean “most advanced.”
- Example: This is the furthest I’m willing to compromise. (meaning greatest extent)
- For furthest details, please refer to the manual. (meaning most detailed)
| Adjective | Superlative |
|---|---|
| Good | Best |
| Bad | Worst |
| Far | Farthest/Furthest |
| Little | Least |
| Much/Many | Most |
7. Common Mistakes to Avoid When Using Comparative and Superlative Adjectives
Using comparative and superlative adjectives correctly can sometimes be tricky. Here are some common mistakes to avoid:
7.1. Double Comparatives/Superlatives
Avoid using “more” or “most” with adjectives that already have “-er” or “-est” endings. For example, don’t say “more taller” or “most tallest.” The correct forms are “taller” and “tallest.”
-
Incorrect: This car is more faster than that one.
-
Correct: This car is faster than that one.
-
Incorrect: She is the most smartest person I know.
-
Correct: She is the smartest person I know.
7.2. Incorrect Usage of “Than” and “Then”
“Than” is used for comparisons, while “then” is used to indicate time or sequence. Make sure to use the correct word in your sentences.
-
Incorrect: He is taller then me.
-
Correct: He is taller than me.
-
Incorrect: I went to the store, then I went home than.
-
Correct: I went to the store, then I went home.
7.3. Misusing Irregular Forms
Remember to use the correct irregular comparative and superlative forms. Don’t try to apply regular rules to irregular adjectives.
-
Incorrect: This is the goodest cake I’ve ever eaten.
-
Correct: This is the best cake I’ve ever eaten.
-
Incorrect: My performance was badder than his.
-
Correct: My performance was worse than his.
7.4. Not Using “The” with Superlatives
Superlative adjectives usually require the definite article “the” before them.
-
Incorrect: She is tallest girl in the class.
-
Correct: She is the tallest girl in the class.
-
Incorrect: This is most interesting book I’ve read.
-
Correct: This is the most interesting book I’ve read.
7.5. Confusing “Further” and “Farther”
Remember to use “farther” for physical distances and “further” for metaphorical distances or additional information.
-
Incorrect: I need to walk further to reach the store.
-
Correct: I need to walk farther to reach the store.
-
Incorrect: Let’s discuss this topic farther.
-
Correct: Let’s discuss this topic further.
By being aware of these common mistakes, you can ensure that you use comparative and superlative adjectives correctly and effectively.
8. The Importance of Context in Choosing the Right Form
Context plays a crucial role in choosing the right comparative or superlative form. The surrounding sentences, the specific situation, and the intended meaning all influence the correct choice of adjective form.
8.1. Understanding the Scope of Comparison
Before choosing a comparative or superlative adjective, consider the scope of the comparison. Are you comparing two items, or are you comparing one item to an entire group?
-
Comparative:
- Example: This apple is sweeter than that one. (comparing two apples)
-
Superlative:
- Example: This apple is the sweetest in the basket. (comparing one apple to all others in the basket)
8.2. Considering Formal vs. Informal Language
The level of formality can also influence your choice of adjective form. In more formal writing, it’s generally better to use “more” and “most” with two-syllable adjectives, while in informal speech, using “-er” and “-est” might sound more natural.
-
Formal:
- The situation is more complex than we initially thought.
-
Informal:
- The situation is complexer than we initially thought.
8.3. Pay Attention to Idiomatic Expressions
Some expressions are idiomatic and have fixed comparative or superlative forms. For example, “the sooner, the better” is a common expression that uses the comparative form even though it implies a superlative meaning.
-
Idiomatic:
- The sooner, the better.
-
Non-Idiomatic:
- The soonest is the best. (less common and less natural)
8.4. Ensuring Clarity and Avoiding Ambiguity
The primary goal is to ensure clarity and avoid ambiguity. Choose the adjective form that best conveys your intended meaning. If you’re unsure, it’s often better to err on the side of clarity, even if it means using a slightly longer or more formal construction.
-
Ambiguous:
- This solution is simple. (compared to what?)
-
Clear:
- This solution is simpler than the alternative.
By carefully considering the context, you can choose the right comparative or superlative form and ensure that your writing is clear, accurate, and effective.
9. Practice Exercises: Test Your Knowledge
To solidify your understanding of comparative and superlative adjectives, try these practice exercises:
9.1. Fill in the Blanks with the Correct Form of the Adjective
Fill in the blanks with the correct comparative or superlative form of the adjective in parentheses.
- This book is __________ (interesting) than the one I read last month.
- She is the __________ (tall) student in her class.
- My house is __________ (big) than yours.
- This is the __________ (good) coffee I have ever tasted.
- The weather today is __________ (cold) than yesterday.
- He is __________ (happy) now that he has a new job.
- This is the __________ (expensive) car in the showroom.
- I need to walk __________ (far) to reach the park.
- She is __________ (busy) than she was last week.
- This is the __________ (little) I can offer.
9.2. Rewrite the Sentences Using Comparative or Superlative Adjectives
Rewrite the following sentences using comparative or superlative adjectives.
- The red car is fast, but the blue car is faster.
- The blue car is ____ than the red car.
- This is a good movie, but that movie is even better.
- That movie is ____ than this one.
- She is a tall girl, but her sister is the tallest in the family.
- Her sister is ____ in the family.
- The book is interesting, but the movie is more interesting.
- The movie is ____ than the book.
- The weather is bad, but today it is worse.
- The weather today is ____ than before.
9.3. Identify and Correct the Errors
Identify and correct the errors in the following sentences.
- This is the most tallest building in the city.
- She is more happier than she was yesterday.
- He is taller then me.
- This is the goodest cake I have ever eaten.
- I need to walk further to reach the store than you.
Answers to Practice Exercises:
9.1. Fill in the Blanks with the Correct Form of the Adjective
- more interesting
- tallest
- bigger
- best
- colder
- happier
- most expensive
- farther
- busier
- least
9.2. Rewrite the Sentences Using Comparative or Superlative Adjectives
- faster
- better
- the tallest
- more interesting
- worse
9.3. Identify and Correct the Errors
- Incorrect: This is the most tallest building in the city.
- Correct: This is the tallest building in the city.
- Incorrect: She is more happier than she was yesterday.
- Correct: She is happier than she was yesterday.
- Incorrect: He is taller then me.
- Correct: He is taller than me.
- Incorrect: This is the goodest cake I have ever eaten.
- Correct: This is the best cake I have ever eaten.
- Incorrect: I need to walk further to reach the store than you.
- Correct: I need to walk farther to reach the store than you.
By completing these exercises, you can reinforce your understanding of comparative and superlative adjectives and improve your ability to use them correctly in your writing and speaking.
10. Resources for Further Learning
To continue improving your knowledge of comparative and superlative adjectives, here are some valuable resources:
10.1. Online Grammar Websites
-
Grammarly: Offers comprehensive grammar guides and tools to help you improve your writing.
- Website: Grammarly
-
EnglishClub: Provides lessons, quizzes, and forums for English learners of all levels.
- Website: EnglishClub
-
Perfect English Grammar: Features clear explanations and practice exercises on various grammar topics.
- Website: Perfect English Grammar
10.2. English Language Learning Apps
-
Duolingo: A popular app that offers gamified lessons to help you learn English grammar and vocabulary.
- App Store: Duolingo
-
Memrise: Uses flashcards and mnemonics to help you memorize English grammar rules and vocabulary.
- App Store: Memrise
10.3. Grammar Textbooks
-
English Grammar in Use by Raymond Murphy: A comprehensive grammar textbook for intermediate to advanced learners.
- Available on: Amazon
-
Understanding and Using English Grammar by Betty Azar: A classic grammar textbook with clear explanations and practice exercises.
- Available on: Amazon
10.4. Online Courses
-
Coursera: Offers a variety of English grammar courses taught by university professors.
- Website: Coursera
-
edX: Provides access to English grammar courses from top universities around the world.
- Website: edX
10.5. Practice with Native Speakers
-
Language Exchange Apps: Use apps like HelloTalk or Tandem to practice speaking with native English speakers.
-
Tutoring Services: Hire a private tutor on platforms like Verbling or iTalki for personalized English lessons.
By utilizing these resources, you can continue to enhance your understanding of comparative and superlative adjectives and improve your overall English language skills.
11. Real-World Applications of Comparative and Superlative Adjectives
Mastering comparative and superlative adjectives is not just about grammar rules; it’s about enhancing your ability to communicate effectively in various real-world situations. Here are some practical applications:
11.1. Making Comparisons in Everyday Conversations
In daily conversations, you often need to compare items, express preferences, or describe differences. Using comparative and superlative adjectives correctly can make your communication more precise and engaging.
-
Example 1:
- “This coffee is stronger than the one I had yesterday.” (Expressing a preference)
-
Example 2:
- “The new iPhone is more expensive but better than the previous model.” (Comparing features and cost)
-
Example 3:
- “She is the most talented singer in our group.” (Identifying the best performer)
11.2. Writing Persuasive Arguments
In persuasive writing, comparative and superlative adjectives can be powerful tools for convincing your audience. By highlighting the advantages of one option over another, you can strengthen your arguments and influence your readers.
-
Example 1:
- “Our product is more efficient and easier to use than our competitors’.” (Promoting a product’s benefits)
-
Example 2:
- “Investing in renewable energy is the best way to protect our planet for future generations.” (Advocating for a cause)
11.3. Describing Trends and Changes
When discussing trends or changes over time, comparative adjectives are essential for illustrating how things are evolving.
-
Example 1:
- “The weather is getting warmer each year due to climate change.” (Describing a climate trend)
-
Example 2:
- “Technology is becoming more advanced at an exponential rate.” (Illustrating technological progress)
11.4. Evaluating Options and Making Decisions
Whether you’re choosing between job offers, comparing products, or deciding on a vacation destination, comparative and superlative adjectives help you assess your options and make informed decisions.
-
Example 1:
- “This job offer is better in terms of salary, but the other one offers more opportunities for growth.” (Evaluating job offers)
-
Example 2:
- “This hotel is the closest to the beach and has the best reviews.” (Choosing a hotel)
11.5. Enhancing Creative Writing
In creative writing, comparative and superlative adjectives can add depth and vividness to your descriptions, making your stories more engaging and memorable.
-
Example 1:
- “The sky was darker than any night she had ever seen.” (Creating a sense of mystery)
-
Example 2:
- “He was the bravest knight in the kingdom, feared by all his enemies.” (Developing a character)
By mastering the use of comparative and superlative adjectives, you can enhance your communication skills across various contexts, from everyday conversations to professional writing and creative storytelling.
12. Comparative Adjectives and the Digital World
In today’s digital age, the ability to use comparative adjectives effectively is crucial in various online contexts, from writing product reviews to creating engaging content for social media.
12.1. Writing Effective Product Reviews
When writing product reviews, comparative adjectives help you provide valuable insights to potential buyers. By comparing products, highlighting their strengths and weaknesses, and expressing your preferences, you can influence purchasing decisions and build trust with your audience.
-
Example 1:
- “This smartphone has a better camera and a longer battery life than the previous model.” (Highlighting improvements)
-
Example 2:
- “While this laptop is more expensive, it offers superior performance and more advanced features.” (Justifying the higher price)
12.2. Creating Engaging Content for Social Media
On social media platforms, where attention spans are short, using comparative adjectives can make your content more engaging and shareable. By creating intriguing comparisons and highlighting the best features of your products or services, you can capture your audience’s interest and drive conversions.
-
Example 1:
- “Our new summer collection is brighter and bolder than ever before! Check it out now!” (Promoting a new collection)
-
Example 2:
- “Which city is more beautiful: Paris or Rome? Share your thoughts in the comments below!” (Encouraging engagement)
12.3. Optimizing Website Content for SEO
Search engines like Google use algorithms to rank website content based on relevance and quality. By incorporating comparative adjectives naturally into your website copy, you can improve your search engine optimization (SEO) and attract more organic traffic.
-
Example 1:
- “Our web hosting services are faster and more reliable than our competitors’.” (Attracting customers with better performance)
-
Example 2:
- “Looking for the best digital marketing agency in town? Look no further!” (Targeting specific keywords)
12.4. Communicating Effectively in Online Forums and Communities
In online forums and communities, using comparative adjectives can help you express your opinions clearly and respectfully, fostering productive discussions and building positive relationships.
-
Example 1:
- “I think this software is easier to use, but the other one has more features.” (Sharing your opinion)
-
Example 2:
- “Which programming language is better for beginners: Python or Java? Let’s discuss!” (Starting a discussion)
12.5. Crafting Compelling Advertising Copy
In advertising, comparative adjectives are used to persuade potential customers to choose one product or service over another. By highlighting the unique advantages of your offering, you can create compelling ad copy that drives sales and increases brand awareness.
-
Example 1:
- “Our new car offers greater fuel efficiency and more safety features than any other car in its class.” (Persuading customers to buy)
-
Example 2:
- “Get the best deals on flights and hotels with our travel booking platform!” (Attracting customers with value)
By mastering the use of comparative adjectives in the digital world, you can enhance your online presence, communicate more effectively, and achieve your goals in various online contexts.
13. Advanced Usage: Comparative Structures Beyond Simple Adjectives
Beyond the basic “A is better than B” construction, English offers more sophisticated ways to express comparisons using various grammatical structures.
13.1. Using “As…As” for Equality
The “as…as” structure is used to indicate that two things are equal in a particular quality.
-
Example 1:
- “This book is as interesting as the one I read last week.” (Indicating equal interest)
-
Example 2:
- “She is as tall as her brother.” (Indicating equal height)
You can also use “not as…as” to indicate that one thing is less than another.
- Example 3:
- “This car is not as expensive as I thought it would be.” (Indicating lower cost)
13.2. Using “The…The” for Parallel Increase
The “the…the” structure is
