Introduction
In an era where mental health awareness is increasingly vital, studies are continuously exploring factors that can either protect against or contribute to mental health disorders like anxiety and depression. Physical activity, long recognized for its benefits to physical well-being, is now under intense scrutiny for its potential role in mental health. While exercise’s positive impacts on the body are well-documented, researchers are now delving deeper into its psychological effects. Globally, the incidence of mental health challenges is rising, with major depressive disorder affecting 2-9% of children, and anxiety disorders impacting 5-10% of children and up to 25% of teenagers. However, engaging in physical activity offers adolescents a valuable avenue for socialization, stress reduction, and confidence building, all of which are linked to a decreased risk of these mental health conditions. Indeed, research suggests that physical activity can be a powerful tool in mitigating mental health issues, especially considering that a significant percentage of young individuals will experience depressive symptoms during their teenage years. Leading health organizations advocate for daily physical activity for school-aged youth to bolster muscle strength, manage weight, enhance mood, and alleviate symptoms of anxiety and depression. Both individual and team sports emerge as promising avenues for not only preventing but also managing psychological disorders.
Furthermore, participation in organized sports appears to offer even greater mental health benefits than general exercise alone. Organized sports are associated with a reduced risk of anxiety, depression, feelings of hopelessness, and even serious issues like suicidal thoughts and substance abuse. Compared to other forms of physical activity, organized sports show a stronger positive correlation with adolescent mental well-being. These structured activities are linked to fewer depressive symptoms, boosted self-esteem, and improved social skills. The social dynamics inherent in sports foster stress reduction and contribute to better overall mental health in young adults. Studies have indicated that adolescents who abstain from or drop out of organized sports are more likely to encounter social and emotional difficulties compared to their peers who remain engaged. In fact, non-athletes face a significantly higher likelihood of experiencing mental health issues. The evidence strongly supports the positive influence of sports and physical activity on various aspects of mental health.
However, it’s crucial to recognize that not all sports exert the same influence on mental health. Research has highlighted significant differences in psychological skills and motivation for success between athletes in team versus individual sports. Team sports not only promote physical fitness but also cultivate essential mental and social skills in young individuals. They provide a platform for learning teamwork and effective group contribution. The resulting sense of belonging and support is likely instrumental in reducing depressive symptoms and fostering healthy relationships with both peers and adults. Positive team experiences, characterized by supportive coaching, skill development, and peer camaraderie, contribute to social acceptance and reduced body image concerns, ultimately leading to fewer depressive symptoms among adolescents.
Individual sports, conversely, foster a different set of psychological strengths. Solo practice enhances concentration and mental fortitude. While potentially offering less social interaction, individual sports cultivate responsibility and self-reliance. Athletes in individual sports may exhibit heightened preparation levels due to the direct link between their personal efforts and outcomes. However, this heightened accountability can also amplify feelings of shame or guilt following losses. While team sports can be stressful due to competition or team dynamics, individual sports might trigger greater internal attribution of failure, a factor linked to depressive symptoms. Studies indicate that elite junior athletes in individual sports experience depression more frequently than their team sport counterparts. Furthermore, research suggests that sustained participation in team sports throughout high school correlates with fewer depressive symptoms later in life, a benefit not equally observed in individual sports. Both team and individual sports contribute to mental and physical health, but evidence suggests that team sports may have a stronger connection to positive social and psychological outcomes compared to individual sports.
Individual sport athletes may also experience increased anxiety, not only due to how they process failure but also because of their tendency to set intensely personal goals. Individual sports judged on subjective criteria, such as gymnastics and figure skating, are associated with elevated anxiety levels in elite athletes. These athletes face immense pressure to excel and gain approval from judges, driving perfectionist behaviors. While perfectionism exists in team sports, it might be less pronounced than in individual sports. This study aims to investigate the distinct associations between team and individual sports and the prevalence of anxiety and depression diagnoses. Additionally, it explores the hypothesis that motivations for participating in sports differ between young athletes in team versus individual sports.
Study Methodology: Comparing Athlete Groups
This research employed a cross-sectional study design, examining data from athletes who underwent an Injury Prevention Evaluation (IPE) at a sports injury prevention center linked to a pediatric medical center. The center’s primary focus is on minimizing sport-related injuries and advancing injury prevention research. During their evaluation, athletes completed a detailed questionnaire covering sports participation, injury history, training habits, diet, and sleep patterns. This was followed by physical assessments, performance measurements, and biomechanical evaluations. The evaluation concluded with an individualized risk assessment and a tailored injury prevention plan. Athletes were referred through various channels, including self-referral, peer referrals, coaches, and physicians. The study included athletes across all skill levels, from amateur to professional, but focused on participants aged 18 and under. The study received ethical approval from the Institutional Review Board of Boston Children’s Hospital.
Participants were given a list of common sports and asked to identify their top three. Individual sports were defined as those not requiring direct team interaction during competition, such as swimming, gymnastics, and tennis. Team sports included soccer, football, and hockey. For this analysis, athletes were classified as individual sport athletes only if they exclusively participated in individual sports year-round. Any participation in a team sport during any season resulted in categorization as a team sport athlete. Single-sport athletes were defined as participating in only one sport annually.
Reasons for sports participation were categorized into ‘fun-oriented’ (enjoyment, making friends, teamwork) and ‘goal-oriented’ (scholarships, weight control, achievement). Exercise levels were measured using the Marx Activity Rating Scale, assessing the frequency of strenuous and moderate exercise outside of regular training. BMI was adjusted for age and gender using CDC guidelines. Anxiety and depression were based on self-reported, clinician-diagnosed conditions. Alcohol consumption was recorded as a binary measure (yes/no).
Statistical analysis was conducted using Stata® software. Univariable analyses were initially performed to identify potential covariables, using Chi-square or Fisher’s exact tests for categorical data. Variables with a p-value <0.2 in univariable comparisons were included in logistic regression models to determine their independent effects on the outcomes. Statistical significance was set at p <0.05.
Key Findings: Depression Rates and Motivations
Higher Depression Rates in Individual Sports
The study population consisted of 756 athletes with an average age of 13.5 years, with a slight female majority. Most participants were White and had a normal BMI. Overall, 8% of the athletes reported experiencing anxiety or depression. Significantly, a higher percentage of individual sport athletes reported anxiety or depression compared to team sport athletes (13% vs. 7%, p < 0.01). Female athletes also showed a higher prevalence of self-reported anxiety or depression than males (10.3% vs. 4.9%, p < 0.01). While most athletes had a normal BMI, a lower proportion of overweight/obese athletes was observed in individual sports. Individual sport athletes were also more likely to participate in sports for goal-oriented reasons rather than for fun. Furthermore, they were more likely to be single-sport athletes. No significant difference in anxiety and depression rates was found between athletes motivated by fun versus goal-oriented reasons (8.1% vs. 7.8%, p = 0.87).
Further analysis, removing athletes in sports like dance and gymnastics that often involve year-round single-sport focus, still showed individual sport athletes were more likely to specialize in one sport. However, year-round training was no longer significantly different between individual and team sport athletes in this adjusted analysis. Team sport athletes were found to engage more in moderate to strenuous exercise outside of organized practices.
After controlling for factors like gender, age, and BMI, individual sport athletes were significantly less likely to play for fun, more likely to train year-round, and more likely to be single-sport athletes. While individual sport athletes showed a higher likelihood of anxiety or depression diagnoses, this association’s statistical significance decreased after adjusting for other variables.
Motivational Differences: Fun vs. Goal-Oriented
The study highlighted a clear distinction in motivation between athletes in individual and team sports. Individual sport athletes were more inclined towards goal-oriented reasons for participation, such as achieving scholarships or weight management, while team sport athletes were more frequently driven by fun, camaraderie, and the enjoyment of the sport itself. This motivational divergence underscores the different psychological environments inherent in these two types of sports.
Decoding the Data: Why Individual Sports May Elevate Depression Risks
The Isolation Factor in Individual Sports
While sports participation generally shows lower rates of anxiety and depression compared to the general adolescent population, this study reveals a nuanced picture. Individual sport athletes in this study reported higher rates of anxiety and depression than their team sport counterparts. Although both types of sports may offer protective mental health benefits, the degree of protection may differ. The social fabric of team sports could be a key factor. Team environments foster community and interpersonal relationships, which are known to buffer against emotional distress. This sense of belonging and peer support may be less pronounced in individual sports, potentially leaving athletes more vulnerable to feelings of isolation, especially when facing challenges or setbacks.
Pressure and Goal-Oriented Focus
The study also points to the intense focus and pressure often associated with individual sports. Individual sport athletes are more likely to train year-round and specialize in a single sport, indicating a deep and concentrated investment. This level of dedication, while beneficial for skill development, might also create a high-pressure environment where athletes feel acutely responsible for their performance and outcomes. The study’s finding that individual sport athletes are more goal-oriented further supports this. While goal-setting is important, an excessive focus on outcomes, especially in the absence of team support, might amplify the emotional impact of failures and setbacks, potentially contributing to anxiety and depression. In contrast, team sport athletes often have a more balanced schedule and distribute their energy across multiple activities, which could contribute to lower mental health risks.
Gender and Sport Type Considerations
An intriguing aspect of the study is the potential interplay between gender and sport type. The majority of individual sport athletes in this study were female, raising questions about specific vulnerabilities within this demographic. Research suggests that biological differences between sexes might predispose women to higher risks of mood and anxiety disorders. Therefore, the combination of gender and sport type could be a significant factor influencing mental health risks in athletes. Further research is needed to explore these gender-specific dynamics in the context of different sports.
Conclusion: Implications and Future Research
This study highlights a significant finding: young athletes participating in individual sports report higher rates of anxiety and depression compared to those in team sports. Furthermore, individual sport athletes are more likely to be motivated by goal-oriented reasons, while team sport athletes are more driven by fun and enjoyment. These findings suggest that the type of sport adolescents choose, and their motivations for playing, may have differential impacts on their mental health. Future research should delve deeper into how motivational factors and the social dynamics of sports relate to mental well-being. It is plausible that the social support and fun inherent in team sports provide a more effective buffer against psychological distress, whereas the solitary nature of individual sports, coupled with intense performance pressure, might inadvertently increase vulnerability to anxiety and depression. Longitudinal studies, encompassing diverse populations and exploring the evolving motivations of athletes, are crucial to further unravel the complex relationship between sports, motivation, and adolescent mental health.
Acknowledgements
Dr. William Meehan III research is funded, in part, by philanthropic support from the National Hockey League Alumni Association through the Corey C. Griffin Pro-Am Tournament. The remaining authors do not have any funding sources to disclose.
Financial disclosures: Dr. Meehan receives royalties from 1) ABC-Clio publishing for the sale of his books, Kids, Sports, and Concussion: A guide for coaches and parents, and Concussions; 2) Springer International for the book Head and Neck Injuries in Young Athlete and 3) Wolters Kluwer for working as an author for UpToDate. Dr. Meehan’s research is funded, in part, by philanthropic support from the National Hockey League Alumni Association through the Corey C. Griffin Pro-Am Tournament and the National Football League. No other authors have any financial disclosures or conflicts of interest.
This study complied with the laws of the country of the authors’ affiliation.
Author Biographies
Emily PLUHAR
Employment: Psychologist in the Division of Sports Medicine at Boston Children’s Hospital
Degree: PhD
Research interests: Adolescent mental health.
E-mail: [email protected]
Caitlin MCCRACKEN
Employment: A research analyst at Oregon State University School of Pharmacy.
Degree: MSc
Research interests: Sports medicine.
E-mail: [email protected]
Kelsey GRIFFITH
Employment: Performance Enhancement & Rehabilitation Specialist at The Micheli Center for Sports Injury Prevention.
Degree: MSc
Research interests: The mental challenges associated with sport and sport injury to better reach self-determined goals and optimal performance.
E-mail: [email protected]
Melissa CHRISTINO
Employment: Orthopaedic Surgeon at Boston Children’s Hospital
Degree: MD
Research interests: The psychological aspects of injury and recovery.
E-mail: [email protected]
Dai SUGIMOTO
Employment: Associate Director of Clinical Research at the Micheli Center for Sports Injury Prevention and Instructor at Harvard Medical School.
Degree: PhD
Research interests: Sports injuries.
E-mail: [email protected]
William P. MEEHAN III
Employment: Director of the Micheli Center for Sports Injury Prevention, Director of Research for the Brain Injury Center at Boston Children’s Hospital.
Degree: MD
Research interests: Sports injuries, spine injuries, and concussive brain injury.
E-mail: [email protected]
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